Comments and Suggestions are greatly appreciated
Comments and Suggestions are greatly appreciated
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CHAPTER 2
The Historian Herbert Butterfield wrote these revealing words, This chapter will trace the historical foundations for small group ministry in order to learn important lessons from history. I will be tracing the small group involvement in a broad, sweeping format, from the early Biblical times to the Methodist small group movement. Some sections will provide more information than others. For example, I will be emphasizing small group movements after the reformation more than those before the reformation, mainly due to applicability today. My definition of a small group will be more general in this tutorial due to the historical nature of the subject matter. The way that I have described small groups in my Ph.D. research thus far is: However, for this chapter, I will need to expand this definition. I, like others, believe that a small group functions best with no more than fifteen people (Mallison 1989:25; Carl George 1993:136)). Yet, the small groups that I will be studying in this chapter cannot be neatly categorized into this framework. In this chapter I will cover a number of small group movements throughout history: In the Old and New Testament, the Early Church, Early Christian History, the Middle Ages, the Reformation, Anabaptism, Pietism, Moravianism, and Methodism. Small Groups In Biblical Perspective Small groups have played an important place in Biblical history. I will try to focus on clear references to small groups in the Old and New Testaments, rather than implicit principles. Small Groups In The Old Testament There are many general concepts from the Old Testament that establish the core values of small group ministry. Various authors have picked up on Old Testament themes such as community (Gorman 1994:34), relationship (Icenogle 1994:22), and communion (Watson 1978: 67-74) and have applied these concept to small groups today. Actually, the Old Testament says very little specifically about small group ministry. However, there is one Old Testament story that is applied widely in the cell church today (George 1991:125; Karen Hurtson 1995:68; Ralph Neighbour 1990:195). I’m referring to the organizational principle that Jethro first introduced in Exodus 18 when he gave timely counsel to Moses. Although God chose Moses to lead the nation of Israel out of Egypt, it seems that he lacked the skills of delegation. In other words, he tried to do too much by himself. The advice from Jethro, Mose’s father-n-law is straightforward, This counsel lays an organizational structure that extends down from those leaders over 1000s to those over tens. Small Groups In The New Testament The New Testament has more examples of small group ministry. The first New Testament example of a small group is the one that Christ chose. Many have expounded on the way Christ discipled His small group (e.g., Hull 1988:225-250). Others have noted the special sense of community that Christ developed with them (Bechham 1994:118). Certainly a powerful transformation took place as Christ’s followers interacted with their Master in this small group environment. Icenogle comments, "Jesus modeled God’s way of transforming the world. He called out a small group of people to experience their own exodus journey together,.."(1994:118). The House Church In The New Testament It is worth noting that the early church did not have its own buildings. The book of Acts mentions that from earliest times the believers met both in homes and in the temple This structure of both the celebration and the cell structure is first seen in the Jerusalem Church after Pentecost. Acts 2:46 states, "Every day they continued to meet together in the temple courts. They broke bread in their homes and at together with glad and sincere hearts,…" The concept of home/public meetings is substantiated by Paul when he says in Acts 20: 20, "You know that I have not hesitated to preach anything that would be helpful to you but have taught you publicly and from house to house." Necessity Of Small Groups Due To Persecution In the early part of the first century, the celebration/cell experience took place on a daily basis. However, due to persecution, as the history of Acts progresses, the celebration ceased to be a daily experience. We aren’t sure about the regularity of the celebration event because eventually the early church was forced to emphasize the home meetings more than the gathered celebration. Barclay makes the point that primarily due to the early church persecution, the role of the house church became normative (Barclay 1955:228). John Mallison writes, "It is almost certain that every mention of a local church or meeting, whether for worship or fellowship, is in actual fact a reference to a church meeting in a house" (1989:5). Hadaway, Wright and DuBose add, "From the beginning, homes appeared to be the place for the most enduring dimensions of early church life" (1987:40). This quote from Bruce supports the frequency of these meetings, The Relationship Among The House Churches In his letter to the Corinthians, Paul both addresses the individual ecclesia which met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla (I Cor. 16:19), but he also greets the ecclesia as a whole ( I Corinthians 1:2 and II Corinthians 1:1). This seems to indicate that a general relationship existed (Neighbour 1990:44). At this point, Banks agrees (1994:32). The same can be said about the church in Thessolonica and in Rome (I Thess. 1:1; II Thess. 1:1; Rm. 16:23). It might also be suggested that on occasion the house groups gathered for special celebration events. The Love Feast of I Corinthians 11 and Paul´s visit to Troas in Acts 20:6-12 could be examples of this type of joint celebration. F.F. Bruce comments, "Such house churches appear to have been smaller circles of fellowship within the larger fellowship of the city ecclesia" (1957:310). However, in Paul’s later usage of ecclesia, Banks debates the view that the house churches were connected to a common celebration structure. He insists that the house churches were independent entities with no organizational framework to bind them together. However, it is important to note that Banks does acknowledge that Paul did seek to link the various house churches together, although this was not through a common celebration model (1994:42,43). Small Groups In Early Christian History In this section, I will attempt to paint the background for the demise of the house church and various contextual factors that gave rise to the monastic movements. Changes that Affected the Small Group Movement Negatively There were at least two historical developments that hindered small group activity before the reformation Distinction Between Clergy And Laity Various factors were working behind the scene to widen the gap between clergy and laity. The spontaneity that was once so present in the local house church began to come under stricter control of the elected bishops. This distinction was a gradual one that became a factor early on due to the earnest desire to discern between the true church in the midst of falsity and deception. Because of the existence of so many alternative religions (e.g., Gnosticism, etc) there arose a growing need to point to the true, visible Church. Since the body of Scripture was still emerging, many voices were clamoring for authority. It seemed clear to many that the only way to distinction between the true church and the false one was through the actual physical representatives of the apostles. In other words, the way to distinguish the true church from the false one was to assert apostolic succession. The context of apostolic succession became a means to validate orthodox doctrine. In the first quarter of the second century, the case for apostolic succession is made very clearly by Irenaeus (Latourette 1975:131). Latourette points out, Irenaeus mentioned that he could point out the list of bishops from Christ to the present, if he chose to do so. A number of other early church fathers went beyond Irenaeus and actually attempted to establish such a link between the original apostles and the current leadership. By the third century, this line of succession along with the distinct church offices had become quite developed in the church. In major cities, bishops began to grow in power. Their word was respected and for the most part, obeyed. William Brown writes about that time period, Although leaders like Tertullian protested vehemently against these hardened structures, their voices were drowned out (Johnson 1976:80,81). Johnson argues that Tertullian became a Montanist because of this growing distinction. He says, By the time of Cyprian (fifty years after Tertullian), one can notice the distinct shift from the bishop as a servant-shepherd of God’s flock to an administrative ruler (Mayer 1976:296). Mayer writes, "What emerges in the people’s mind is the picture of an administratively strong pastor upon whom in many real ways their future hopes depend" (1976:296). Legalization of Christianity When Christianity became the state religion during the days of Constantine, large, sacred buildings became more esteemed than intimate home fellowships (Plueddemann 1990:4). Because of the incredible "conversion" of the emperor, a new chapter in the history of Christianity was opened for the persecuted church (Latourette 1975:91). Christianity was suddenly acknowledged and accepted as the state religion. Christians could now worship in public places. Just 250 years earlier, many did not know of this religion. After Constantine, the Christians were received with pomp and honor. For the first time in history, it was an advantage politically to be a Christian. Paul Johnson writes, Christians in Rome in 250 AD might have numbered 30,000. By 340 AD Christians had grown to some 340,000 (Harnack quoted in Rosell 1995: Tape 8). Clearly this change affected the house church in a negative way. David Tan writes, There are hints that small groups were implemented within the official church structure. For example, Ambrose, the bishop of Milan (339-397 AD) was involved with small groups—but only among other clergy. Mayer writes, "Ambrose and his clergy associates continued to draw much of their own Christian strength from small group associations. Assistant clergy gathered around Ambrose and this group ministered the gospel of Jesus Christ to each other" (1976:298). Apparently, several early church fathers found a tremendous amount of strength in small community interaction. Mayer writes, "This was the common pattern for centuries: the real strength and vitality of the church lay in the small groups of clergy gathered around a cathedral and the bishop or in the small group of monks gathered around a strong and influential leader" (1976:298). According to Mayer, St. Augustine of Hippo was significantly influenced by these small groups under Ambrose ( Mayer 1976:298). However, it must be noted that these small groups were only among the clergy. Lay participation was not part of this small group structure. Monasticism And Small Groups Many believers after the legalization of Christianity felt that the church had lost its vision and succumbed to the worldliness of the age. Latourette explains, Unlike Ambrose and his colleagues who applied small group principles among the clergy within the visible church, the early monastics, while using many of the same small group structures, were primarily lay person who separated themselves from the official church structure in order to pursue purity. At first this movement was looked down upon by those in authority. Yet, the end of the fifth century, monasticism had become so extensive that it became a major force in the Catholic church (Latourette 1975:222). Many of these lay monks were drawn to the Judean wilderness in order to pursue their own salvation. Scores of monasteries rose up over the dessert of Palestine. In the beginning, many of these zealous reformers were hermits. They kept entirely to themselves. However, this began to change. Brown writes, However, it must be remember that these small monastic communities did not bridge the gap between the laity and the clergy. On the one hand, the clergy had their own small groups and the monastic lay movement met separately as well. Evangelistic Bands In MonasticismSmall groups were also used effectively among the Celts as evangelistic teams. Many of these small bands well-disciplined and closely bound to the other communities of their order (to receive prayer and support). In Ireland, it appears that the entire church was organized around the monastery. After Patrick, the Briton, went to Ireland around 390 AD, Ireland eventually became a "bastion of learning and Christianity" (Pierson 1989:9). One of the outstanding features of the monastic emphasis in Ireland was that as the monks migrated to other countries, they zealously spread the Christian faith (Pierson 1989:10). Celtic Christianity flourished and grew through the efforts of the great Celtic evangelists and missionaries like Aidan, Brendan, Columba, and Patrick. Churches and monasteries were established throughout Ireland, Wales, and Scotland -- the most renowned being at Iona and Lindisfarne. The Celtic missionary movement probably began with Columba in 563 when he went to Iona with 12 helpers (Hardinge quoted in Pierson 1989:10). Speaking of the inner drive that motivated these Celtic missionaries Hardinge writes, In 596 AD Gregory the great (bishop of Rome at the time) sent the monk Augustine and 40 companions to England. Concerning this Roman mission to England, Latourette notes, "While…it did not win as many converts as did the Irish, it effectively forged a connection between the Church in England with the Papacy which was not to be severed until the sixteenth century…(1975:346). Waves of these small bands of missionaries were sent out all over the continent. A community of monks(10-12) would settle in a non-Christian area in Europe and establish a Christian church. They would preach and congregate those converted. They would teach those converts. Once they had established the church they would leave to go to another part of Europe. Since the purpose of these evangelistic teams was to establish the Monastic Community in these land, the comparisons between them and later small group movements are limited. Small Groups Of The Pre-Reformation Period The Protestant Reformation was not an isolated event. There were many underlying factors that helped lay the foundation for reform. Yearning For Change Before the Protestant Reformation began, various movements expressed the longing to return to the priesthood of all believers, the authority of Scripture, and holiness of living. Some of these groups were: the Lollards (followers of Wycliffe), Hussites (followers of John Huss), The Friendship Band, various women groups, and the Brethren of the Common Life. J. Edwin Orr comments, Brethren Of The Common Life One such movement, which focused on small groups, was the Brethren of the Common Life. This movement originated in the Netherlands under the leadership of Gerard Groote (1340-1384). After two years in a monastery, Groote left to preach the gospel. In his preaching, he pinpointed the sins of the clergy and the need for reformation among them (Neale 1970:76). Sometime around 1380, Groote chose twelve disciples which met regularly with him in the house of Forentius Radewijns (Strand 1960:22). After his death in 1384, Forentius Radewijns became the new leader and by the year 1475, the movement had expanded to some 100 houses for women and over thirty men’s homes (Strand 1960:22). Although a branch of the Brother of the Common Life eventually became part of the monastic order, this movement was primarily a reform movement for priests and lay people who were willing to live together for the promotion of holiness. Hyma describes this movement as a "…protest against the formalism of the Church in the fourteenth century" (1950:7). The thrust of this movement was to live outside the monastery and still have no property of their own (Hyma 1950:71). In fact, the movement was persecuted because it refused to become part of the monastic orders (Hyma 1930:25). In order to defend themselves from these attacks, one of the Brethren, Zerbolt, wrote The Treatise on the Common Life. In it he points out that the Brethren of the Common Life were just pious men who chose to meet together in private homes, to share all things in common, and to exhort one another (Hyma 1950:73). Hyma writes, "Groote advised some of them to live together in one house, where they could… serve God with greater chance of success (1950:52). Each house consisted of four or more priests, about eight clerics, and a few layman (Neale 1970:96). None of the brothers were bound by a vow and the gathering was completely voluntary. Those living in these houses devoted themselves to sharing property, copying books, praying, and meditating on Scripture (Neale 1970:97). Thomas a Kempis, who wrote The Imitation of Christ was both educated by the Brethren of the Common Life and later joined their community (Plantinga 1994:1), and it appears that Martin Luther was instructed by them when he was at Magdeburg around 1497 (Crouch 1987:1). Small Groups During The Time Of The Reformation The greatest accomplishment of Martin Luther was rediscovery of the truth of justification by faith alone and the authority of Scripture alone. His discovery shattered the Medieval Church and society and opened up new possibilities for the church, especially for the laity. Luther liberated the church from its Babylonian Captivity (Latourette 1975:712). Yet, for the purpose of this study, I will focus on Luther’s emphasis of the priesthood of all believers. This truth was one of the foundational truths that helped bridge the gap between clergy and laity. However, when it came to providing structures so that the body of Christ could minister freely and exercise their God given gifts, Luther was clearly a product of his personality, culture, and political factors that surrounded him. Luther And Small Groups Luther’s attitude towards small group ministry went a radical change due to the actions of the Anabaptist movement. He initially entertained the idea of using small groups as part of his reformation, but later he changed his mind in the light of contextual circumstances. In a number of his tracts, Luther expressed his concern about the Mass and Liturgy, and he even hinted at the need for house gatherings. In his Preface to The German Mass and Order of Service, he spoke of the need for the gathering of all people in a celebration service. He then added, Tan notes, "Luther saw the potential of the house church and had a vision of meeting in homes for deeper expression of faith which was absent in the institutional church" (1994:45). The answer to this dilemma concerning why Luther spoke of the importance of small groups, yet never implemented them is found in one of his letters discovered in 1982. He wrote on April, 14, 1529 to a fellow priest, Karl Weiss. Weiss had begun to involve his parish in a small group ministry and asked Luther to write down guidelines. Weiss had taken Luther’s advice seriously about forming small groups of ‘earnest Christians’. In his reply, Luther confessed that he had ‘changed his mind’ about the formation of small groups (White, ed. 1983:274), stating that he no longer believed that ‘earnest Christians’ should meet together in the home in order ‘to pray, to read, to baptize, to receive the sacrament, and to do other Christian works… (White, ed. 1983:274). Anabaptist Movement Influences His Thinking In 1526 when Luther first wrote about earnest Christians meeting together, the Anabaptist movement was just beginning. In February, 1527 the articles of faith for the Anabaptist movement were written and accepted. Three months after the signing of those documents, Michael Slater, one of the key authors, was burned at the stake (Latourette 1975:782). It seems that when Luther first talked of groups of earnest Christians meeting together in 1526, he saw the positive potential of such groups. However, by April, 1529, because of the reaction against Anabaptists, he changed his mind. Here are the reasons given in the letter for Luther’s change of thinking about small group ministry:
Here, Luther’s doctrine of justification clearly comes into play. Luther came to realize that if one thinks that he or she is an ‘earnest Christian’ there is the danger of pride and a lack of understanding of grace.
Luther warns, "If we allow small groups of Christians to separate from the rest, to read the Word, to baptize, and to receive sacraments, we will have established a new church (White, ed. 1983:275). The above quote must be read in the light of the Anabaptist movement which had separated from the Reformed church only a few years earlier. With this separation fresh on his mind, Luther fears the potential divisiveness of small groups. He says, Luther arrived at the conclusion that a small group atmosphere would engender more divisiveness than unity.
At this point in 1529, Luther now believes that there is no Scriptural warrant for such small groups. Rather, he quotes passages to indicate that the true church has a mixture of both the pure and the impure (White, ed. 1983:276,277).
He writes, "He [Satan] would be able to get us to isolate all the strongest Christians, and keep them from the weak. Then the strong would grow proud, the weak would give up, and all would go to hell in a handbasket (White, ed. 1983:278). We have noted that Luther’s retreat from the use of small groups in the reformation was largely due to the abuses and dangers that he imagined in the Anabaptist movement. However, Luther’s disciple, Martin Bucer (Latourette 1975:709) sensed the compelling need to reform the church by the creation of small home based communities. Ecclesiological Reform Through Small Groups Bucer clearly saw the carnality and superficiality in his church at Strasbourg. He had continually stressed moral reform since arriving, but the apparent futility of his labors almost shattered his patience (Wright 1994:137). Bucer became increasingly drawn to the model of the primitive church. Wright comments, Bucer felt that the goal of these groups was to make the church at Strasbourg "…more faithful to the primitive and ancient churches" (Wright 1994:142). Wright comments, Only serious believers were admitted to these groups. In fact a potential member had to be interviewed by the pastor and the group’s elders. The interview dealt with member’s beliefs concerning doctrine, the sacraments, Christian behavior and repentance. Implementation Of Groups In The Face Of Criticism Even though Bucer faced continual pressure and criticism concerning what ‘might happen’ as a result of his small groups, he continued to press ahead. As the leading reformer of Strasbourg, he found himself at the heart of the Anabaptist debate because there were many Anabaptists in the city. In 1534 Bucer debated with the Anabaptists about the need for a confessing church, but yet one open to all (Wright 1994:134). In the mid-1540s, Anabaptism rapidly increased in number and influence. We read about groups assembling secretly at night in the forest of Eckbolsheim, on Strasbourg’s doorstep (Wright 1994:135). It was very risky thing for Bucer to advocate further reform and suggest the possibility of forming small groups for discipleship and spiritual growth. Wright notes, He continues, Yet, in spite of all of the criticism, Bucer was compelled to press ahead, because he so strongly believed in the two-fold structure of cell and celebration. The Need For Cell And Celebration For Bucer, it was not a matter of deciding to support the inclusive state church or the gathered church (Anabaptist). Rather, he felt the need for both. Wright concludes, "This motif of twofold ecclesiology, at once both majority-based and confessing, played an important role in the slow maturation of Bucer’s plans for small communities (1994:134). Bucer felt that he would have actually been ‘unfaithful’ to Scripture if he did not promote the gathering of believers in small groups (Wright 1994:137). Bucer explained to his critics that Instead of creating divisiveness, the small groups aimed specifically at promoting unity among all Christians. The Sunday morning worship service would bring them all together. In fact, Bucer felt that the communion table on Sunday morning was the perfect time for the ‘true’ Christian community to meet (Wright 1994:141). Anabaptist Movement We have previously seen that Anabaptist movement provoked such fierce reaction in Martin Luther that he ‘changed his mind’ about the role of small groups in the church. It was also this movement that stirred untold criticism against Martin Bucer for his participation in small group reform? Actually, the core beliefs and practices of the Anabaptists are probably closer to those espoused by Evangelical Christianity today. At the same time, the Anabaptist Movement cannot be pigeonholed into one neat category. There are a number of streams that form this movement. There are also groups that manifest Anabaptist characteristics in one area and not in another. For the most part, the Anabaptists embraced Luther’s emphasis on justification by faith, Scripture alone, the priesthood of all believers, separation from the Catholic Church, and other key doctrines. However, the Anabaptists believed that Luther and the reformers did not go far enough. They believed that there were two foundational truths that the reformers had overlooked: Believer baptism instead of infant baptism & the priority of the gathered church as opposed to the state church The name Anabaptist means ‘rebaptized’. This name was given by their critics, since the Anabaptists believed that only believer’s baptism mattered. They rejected infant baptism as contrary to the Scriptures and regarded only that baptism valid which was administered to conscious believers" (Latourette 1975:779). Therefore, according to the Anabaptists, the true church of Jesus Christ consisted only of those who mad an adult commitment. A corollary was rejection of the territorial, or state church. Obviously only a gathered church of adult believers could be valid. The Gathered Church Rather Than State Church Latourette defines this aspect of their belief by saying, "They believed in ‘gathered’ churches, not identical with the community at large, but composed of those who had had the experience of the new birth" (1975:779). It is important to remember that the church for both Luther and Calvin consisted of the entire community. It was through infant baptism that one entered into the state church (Latourette 1975:778). Perhaps the state church paradigm was as much cultural as religious. In other words, the practice of the state church was not only a carry over from the Catholic tradition, but this practice served as an instrument for order and cultural transmission. The state church was the means through which cultural mores and beliefs communicated to the rest of the people. However, it was the state church idea that the Anabaptist movement attacked most radically. It is easy to now see why the Anabaptist were looked upon with such suspicion and skepticism. In that day, to separate from the church was akin to separating from society. Such actions were believed to threaten the very moral fabric of society. It must not be thought that Anabaptism was widely accepted. It did not attract the multitudes that were drawn to Luther or Calvin. Probably the major reasons was that, as Latourette notes, "…they seemed to be dangerous revolutionaries, upsetting the established order" (1975:779). And the state church reacted by persecuting them severely. Surely, some of the persecution came as a result of theological disagreement, but most of it came because the Anabaptist challenged the normal cultural norms. Latourette says, "Late in the 1520’s and early in the 1530’s hundred of Anabaptists were killed, some by drowning, some by beheading, and others by burning" (1975:782). It was in 1522 that those with Anabaptist tendencies gathered in homes for small, private meetings. These meetings expanded into a wave of lay reading groups throughout 1522 and 1523, which met mainly in Zurich and the surrounding area (Latham 1993:13). These small group meetings were directed toward strengthening the faith and expanding the knowledge of eager Christians. In fact, some of these small home studies were so effective in and around Zurich that Zwingli commented that as a result of these meetings certain lay people were better acquainted with the Scriptures than some priests (Latham 1993:15). Small groups played a vital part among of the Anabaptist movement throughout the sixteenth century. However, it is not conclusive whether or not they met in small groups due to theological reasons or because of circumstantial reality (i.e., persecution). They believed that only believers should meet together, but they seemed to be just as open to larger believers meetings as they were to smaller ones. Small Groups As A Means Of Separation An important reason why the Anabaptists met in private in homes was to confirm their belief that the true Church of Jesus Christ was a gathered church of committed believers. Latham comments, As a result of this separation, the reformed church in Zurich actively sought out the Anabaptists in order to put them to death. Mantz was the first Anabaptist martyr, who was put to death by drowning on the charge of conducting illegal re-baptisms (Latham 1993:27). Circumstantial Necessity For Small Groups It is hard to say whether or not the Anabaptists met in homes due to their theological convictions or because of circumstantial necessity. Yes, they constantly met in small groups, but it seems that there was no other alternative. Did they believe that their small group meetings better represented the true church of Jesus Christ or was it more of a necessity? Perhaps, a little of both. Plueddemann writes, Latham concludes her dissertation on the Anabaptist movement by saying, Small Groups After The Reformation There are several significant small group movements that arose after the reformation. Pietism Robert Moylan, in his dissertation "Lutheran Pietism: Paradox or Paradigm, " sums up the goal of Pietism in this way, Donald Bloesch adds, "Among the salient features of Pietism is the emphasis upon the religion of the heart….In the Pietist movement there is an existential emphasis, a call for personal involvement in the truth of the faith" (1973:106) Pietism was a renewal movement which took place in the wake of the tragic thirty year war in which much of Germany was devastated. It was a time when many were searching for answers. For the most part, they were not finding those answers in the Lutheran church. . Latham writes, "…the Lutheran Church in seventeenth century Germany consisted largely of nominal Christians who attended church services that were dull and boring. Ministers preached theological legalism that no one could, or wanted to, understand (1993:58). There was also drunkenness and immorality among the clergy. The spiritual condition of Germany was very low (Latourette 1975:895). The church services were formal and sterile. Pietism must be understand in this context. Spener’s concern was for moral and spiritual reformation, rather than dry, doctrinal debate. In this dry, sterile, and immoral context, Philip Spener sensed the need to lead people to genuine faith . He believed that change could only take place as believers met in small groups for Bible study, prayer, worship, and fellowship. The goal of the groups was discipleship and holiness. Consequently Spener wanted only serious believers to attend (Latham 1993:63). Doyle Young writes, Philip Jacob Spener Born in 1635, Spener was a Lutheran. In 1663, he became pastor in Strasbourg and then in Frankfort (1666). One of the early influences that shaped his thinking was the writing of Johann Arndt. Stoeffler says, "…one of the most pervasive religious influences among earnest Lutherans at this time was that of Johann Arndt, who through his Wahres Christentum helped to mold the thought and life of several generation after him" (Stoeffler 1973:2). Spener was one of those heavily influenced by Arndt. While in Frankfurt he sought to nourish and promote a deeper life among the church members (Latourette 1975:895). Latourette notes, "…he gathered in his own home a group for the cultivation of the Christian life through the discussion of the Sunday sermons, prayer, and the study of the Bible (1975:895). This movement spread and the groups became known as collegia pietatis. Sohn describes the importance of the small group to Pietism, The following are only some of the chief characteristics that were present in Spener’s small groups: Leadership.-- It was necessary for a qualified leader to be present in these meetings in order to avoid false doctrine. It appears that this person normally was a pastor or a professor who was willing to take responsibility for the group (Latham 1993:67). However, the leader was not to dominate the discussion. Rather, he was to stir up participation among those who were present.. Spener writes, Participation.--As was mentioned, although the leader was always present, opportunity was given for each to participate. The Sunday sermon might be the starting point for the discussion, but then each person was to contribute according to his or her own understanding. Referring to the lesson part of the study Spener writes, "This [the study] should be done in such fashion that each student may be permitted to say what he thinks about each verse and how he finds that it applies to his own and to others’ benefit" (1964:113). Spener’s emphasis on participation was the result of his theological conviction concerning the priesthood of all believers. Bloesch writes, "The priesthood of believers, though having a prominent place in the theology of the Reformers, was given concrete embodiment in Pietism" (1973:118). Spener was convinced that all believers were necessary. He writes, Balance Between Cell And Celebration.-- Spener was very careful to include his brand of practical Christianity within Lutheran ecclesiology and thus avoid Anabaptism. In other words, like Luther, Spener was part of the state church. His goal was to make that church more holy and Christ-like through the ministry of small groups. These meetings were only to supplement the Sunday morning worship service. He did not even allow the people to call the groups ‘the true church’, so as to avoid doctrinal conflict (Young 1989:109). Nor did Spener allow the celebration of the sacraments at these meetings. The communion was reserved for the entire congregation only (Young 1989:108) On Sunday morning , Spener would often urge the congregation to participate in the small groups and to fulfill their Christian duties. For example, he would urge the believers in the congregation to come together on Sunday for the sake of spiritual instruction and to review the Sunday sermon, rather than play cards (Spener 1964:13). Criticisms Of Spener’s Reforms Spener’s reforms set off a wave of protests. Many accused him of being untrue to Lutheran doctrine. Latourette notes, Some of the opposition arose at Frankfurt because there were those who went to the home meetings, but then did not attend the public worship services and did not partake in the Lord’s supper (Latourette 1975:895). There were also those who used the small group fellowship as an opportunity to interpret doctrine narrowly and create a legalistic wedge between those they considered truly converted and those who were not (Mackintosh quoted in Moylan 1992:159). The Spread Of Pietism The constant opposition hindered Spener’s reforms. We are told that in Frankfurt a suspicious city council ordered the meetings to be closed down (Young 1989:109). The criticisms eventually wore upon Spener. Young writes, "…by 1703 (thirty-three years after the beginning of the Collegia) Spener had become cynical and cautious about the groups and established no others when he moved from Frankfurt (Young 1989:109). However, the movement spread far beyond Spener’s own ministry. Many Lutheran churches began to practice Spener’s principles. Francke at Halle did more than anyone to spread the Pietist doctrine over the world. Zinzendorf, the founder of the Moravian Church, was strongly influenced by Pietism while at Halle. John Wesley himself was touched through the Moravians and the story goes on and on. As Sohn declares, "Missiologically speaking, it [Pietism] formed part of the launching pad of Protestant World Mission" (1990:50). Pietism has also greatly influenced the small group movement today. The covenant groups that Roberta Hestenes and others have championed are really an offshoot of the small groups in Pietism (Moylan 1992:160-175). It can also be argued that the Bible study movement in general can be traced back to Pietism. The Moravian movement was closely linked to the Pietistic tradition. It began in 1722 when a few refugees from the persecutions of Protestants in Bohemia and Moravia settled on the estate of Nicolas Ludwig, Count of Zinzendorf (1700-1760). Early History In 1457, a group established a colony in Lititz, on the Border of Bohemia, where they followed the teachings of Hus. In 1467, sixty years before the Protestant Reformation, they founded their own independent ministry known as the Unitas Fratrum, Unity of Brethren. A hymnal was published in 1501 and between 1579 and 1593, the Bible was translated into the Bohemian language. During the Thirty Years' War in 1620, the Brethren were forced to go underground. Their leader, Bishop John Amos Comenius fled to Poland with a small band of refugees. This group spread into Bohemia and neighboring Moravia and, eventually some went to the estate of Count Nicholas von Zinzendorf who allowed them to settle on his estate. Zinzendorf had been educated at Halle, was a devout pietist, and the godson of Spener (McCallum 1996:4). Stoeffler notes, "During his time at Halle the special gifts of Zinzendorf, his linguistic ability, his leadership qualities, his ability to conceive novel schemes, had become abundantly apparent…(1973:134). His ardent desire for Jesus and vision to spread the gospel to the ends of the earth were fulfilled through those refugees who came to his estate.Latourette writes, "In the handful of persecuted refugees he saw the means of fulfilling that vision" (Latourette 1975:897). Zinzendorf perceived the entire world as his parish. He was truly a world Christian. To send missionaries out to the uttermost parts of the world, he finally consented to set up a new church structure, over which he became bishop. It was through this new church structure that many missionaries were sent around the world (Latourette 1975:897).Doyle states, Small Groups In The Moravian Church Zinzendorf was not initially interested in establishing a denomination (Stoeffler 1973:160). His original thinking was that people should remain in their own denomination but participate in addition in a more disciplined community. It was this emphasis on liberating freedom in the small group that the Moravians passed down to future generations. The Moravians also offered to the church-renewal movement the techniques of society, class, and band" (Doyle 1989:110). In his doctoral dissertation on small group renewal, William Brown states, The Bands Even before the Moravian church was fully operational, personal bands were formed for those refugees and people who had come to live at Herrnhut (Hamilton 1967:32). Their purpose was to promote personal growth in grace and fellowship between kindred spirits and free and informal associations of those who felt drawn to each other. They met in frequent conferences for prayer and intimate discussion of personal experiences. Each member of the congregation could join the band most congenial to him or one in whose leader he had special confidence. There were also specific groups for women that Lady Zinzendorf promoted. The Choirs They divided their congregations into choirs or groups according to age, sex and marital status. Thus, there were groups of widowers, widows, married people, single men, single women, older boys, older girls, younger boys and younger girls. Each group had its own meetings and the adult groups had their own houses where members lived and carried out their usual activities (Hamilton 1967:37). Hamilton notes, "In time the voluntary associations cultivated in the band were supplanted by compulsory membership in the choir with the subordination of family life which this institution produced in its heyday" (1967:37). It appears that in time the mandatory, age-divided choirs became more important than the family. One leader, Spangenberg, wrote from America, "Our married people are living as if they were still traveling, the husbands and the wives and the children each for themselves" (quoted in Sessler 1933:96). Sessler states, The Methodists And Small Groups The Methodist movement was greatly influenced by the Moravians. Wesley was led to the assurance of salvation and a deep personal relationship with God as a result of his contact with Moravians; He also derived many of his small group concepts from them as well. Brown states, He was so impacted by the Moravians after his "heart warming experience" in 1738 that he went to Germany, met with Zinzendorf and spent several days at Herrnhut. Although he was critical of some of the movement, he adopted several of their methods in his own ministry (Latourette 1975:1025).Many believe that it was because of small groups that Methodism was so successful. T.A. Hegre says, Wesley’s Orientation Toward Small Groups God in His sovereignty prepares us for our future ministry. So it was for John Wesley. He was no stranger to small groups. Plueddeman writes, Wesley’s Talents For Small Groups Not only did Wesley have a small group background, but he was also an excellent administrator. In fact, he felt that his primarily talent lay in his ability to organize people (Latourette 1975:1026). Not only was he well organized, but he also was very good at adapting the methodology of other people to suit his own ends. Latourette notes that he had "…an unusual capacity to accept suggestions and to adopt and adapt methods from various quarters" (Latourette 1975:1026). Hunter expounded on this, Wesley’s Vision For Small Groups Wesley believed in the church and wanted a New Testament church. Like, Bucer and Spener, he wanted God’s people to experience the community of the King. Therefore he became a student of the book of Acts and the New Testament model of the church. Hunter says, Wesley’s Small Group Organization Wesley believed that small groups were God’s instrument to implement change, and showed great understanding concerning how to do it. Classes The fundamental unit of Wesley’s small group organization was the class. Classes were the cornerstone of the Methodist organization. Without them, the movement would not have experienced such success. Early History.--There seem to be at least two reasons for the origin of the classes. They were originally organized to raise money. Each member was required to give one penny each week. But in 1742, Wesley realized that too many Christians were falling away (Doyle 1989:112). So the classes were started to deal with the problem. Leadership.--A large part of the success in the class system had to do with the system of leadership. Here are a few key principles that Wesley established:
Activity In Group.--The class meeting was not a highly organized event. It normally lasted for one hour, and the main event was ‘reporting on your soul’ (Snyder 1980:55). The class would open with an opening song. Then the leader would share a personal, religious experience. Afterwards, he would inquire about the spiritual life of those in the group. Each member would give a testimony about his or spiritual condition. Before closing in prayer, there would be an offering to support the ministry. David Lowes Watson, in Accountable Discipleship, a modern day manual on the class system, writes, "It was a weekly gathering, a sub-division of the society, at which members were required to give an account to one another of their discipleship, and thereby to sustain each other in their witness" (1986:13). Probably the best way to describe the emphasis is in the word ‘transparency’. The meeting was build upon the sharing of personal experience of the past week (Pallil 1991:107). Along with the idea of transparency in the class meeting was the goal of participation. Everyone was encouraged to be a part of the class, to share his or her experiences. Mallison writes, From early on, Wesley learned the importance of allowing each member of the body to use his or her gift. In the early days, various members from the classes began to preach the gospel. Wesley hesitated. Was this from God? Yet, he heard the Word of the Lord from his mother Susannah. She told him that by not letting them preach he would be quenching the Holy Spirit. He yielded, and lay preachers became an outstanding feature of Methodism" (Latourette1975:1027).. Discipline.--- The class meeting contribute to the overall objectives of the Methodist society primarily by keeping the Methodist societies under tight control, or discipline. Snyder says, "The class meetings were not designed merely as Christian growth groups, however, or primarily as cells for koinonia, although in fact they did serve that function. Their primary purpose was discipline" (1980:38). Wesley did not hesitate to expel someone from the society, if he or she was not following the Lord wholeheartedly. He knew the condition of each member through the class accountability structures. Cell reports were regularly received. (Snyder 1980:57) Before a person could even be part of the Methodist society, he or she had to join a class. One was not allowed to join the large group, the society which is analogous to our modern church, before joining the small group or class (Doyle 1989:113). Leaders of the larger society knew if one had been faithful in attending the classes and thus following the Lord since each member was issued a ticket which had to be renewed every three months (Pallil 1991:105). Hunter notes, ". . . every Methodist belonged to a class. Indeed, the class was Methodism’s main point of entry for ‘awakened’ seekers who had not yet experienced justification and new life but who desired such experience"(1996:85). Evangelism.-- One of the most exciting aspects of the class system was its evangelistic emphasis. Brown says, Hunter echoes that, "To Wesley, evangelism…took place primarily in the class meetings and in people’s hearts in the hours following the class meetings (Hunter 1987:58). Thus Wesley did not have the crusade mentality sometimes more interested in decision than discipleship. He was not convinced that a person had made a decision for Christ until he was involved in a small group. The beauty of the class meeting was that it was an evangelistic tool and at the same time a discipling instrument. Doyle states, "The classes served as an evangelistic tool (most conversions occurred in this context) and as a discipling agent" (Doyle 1989:113). Multiplication.--According to George Hunter, Wesley was a church growth strategist. Hunter comments, "He was driven to multiplying ‘classes’ for these served best as recruiting groups, as ports of entry for new people, and for involving awakened people with the gospel and power " (Hunter 1987:56). Wesley would preach and then invite the people to join a class. His first objective in his preaching was the starting of classes (Hunter 1987:57). Wesley would not start a class, if he couldn’t manage it. He would only start as many classes as could be effectively managed and he would not preach where he could not enroll people into classes (Hunter 1987:56). Apparently, most classes started from scratch. That is, there was not lot of cell multiplication. Dean says, "Cell division was much less common than might have been expected. The formation of new classes was by far the most frequent approach to growth" (Dean 1985:266). Bands represented another level in Methodist organization. Various Characteristics.—These characteristics included: The bands were started in 1738--before the classes. They followed the Moravian pattern by forming the overall society into bands in order to aid the spiritual nourishment of each member (Latourette 1975: 1026). At one time, there were several types of bands, but eventually they were dissolved and the classes took their place (Pallil 1991:105). The Penitent Bands were provided for people who had fallen away from serious discipleship and were now seeking restoration (Hunter 1996:85) About six people were in each band The bands were organized according to sex, age, and marital status (Brown 1992:38). Only about 20% of Methodists ever joined a band (Doyle 1989L112). Unlike the classes, attendance in the bands was not required. Activity In The Band.--There were four questions that were asked in the bands:
Doyle sums up the purpose of the bands quite well, The society was the congregational level, as we know it. People who remained committed in their pursuit of a new life, and attended the class meeting regularly were automatically made part of the society after three months (Hunter 1996: 85) Hunter makes an important comparison, Wesley acted very much like a Moses in the supervision of his system. He kept on stepping back and delegating others to higher levels of leadership. Latourette says, We are told that eventually, hundreds of thousands of people participated in the small group system (Brown 1992:39). Snyder reports, "By the time Methodism had reached 100,000 members at the end of the century, the movement must have had over 10,000 class and band leaders with perhaps an equal or larger total of other leaders (Snyder 1980:63). This system of bands and classes continued for over a century (Snyder 1980:62). The following shows the growth of the movement:
Conclusion Many important lessons can be learned from the historical study of small groups. For example, in the Old Testament, leadership care is given new significance through an organizational structure. In the New Testament Church, we learn about the cell/celebration model that so many have followed in succeeding generations. Largely, through a negative example, the separation between clergy and laity in early Church history reinforces the necessity of not ceasing to emphasize the priesthood of all believers. Through monastic groups in the middle ages, important lessons can be learned concerning the disciplined, devotional nature of the Christian life and of the possibility of both renewal and evangelism through the small groups. The early reformers (especially Martin Bucer) teach us how small group structures can be used to call the church back to vital Christianity. The small group structure among the Anabaptists help us to learn more about the nature of the true church—the gathered community. In Pietism, we catch a glimpse of how small groups were used in a complimentary role within the state church. From the Moravian and Methodist small group structures we can learn how small groups can be used with great effectiveness both in evangelism and discipleship which results in church growth. references cited Banks, Robert 1994 Paul’s Idea of Community. Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers. Barclay, William 1955 The Letter To The Romans. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. Beckham, William A. 1995 The Second Reformation. Houston: Touch Publications. Bloesch, Donald G. 1973 The Evangelical Renaissance. Grand Rapids: Hamilton B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Boddie, Jim 1996 "The Moravian Church" Internet Page. August, 1996. Brown, William 1992 "Growing the Church Through Small Groups in the Australian Context." 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